Battle of Volturnus - Romans vs Franks

Franks vs Romans at the Battle of Volturnus.
The Franks generally fought naked to the waist, with leather trousers, without breastplate or greaves, and bareheaded, though a few had helmets.  The Franks were armed with lance, sword and ax.

Franks vs Romans in 554 AD . . . . the last stages of the Gothic Wars



The Battle of the Volturnus, also known as the Battle of Casilinum or Battle of Capua, was fought in Central Italy in 554 between an army of the Eastern Roman Empire and a combined force of Franks and Alemanni. The Romans, led by Narses, were victorious.

Background

During the later stages of the Gothic War, the Gothic king Teia called upon the Franks for help against the Roman armies under the eunuch Narses. 


Although king Theodebald refused to send aid, he allowed two of his subjects, the Alamanni chieftains Leutharis and Buccelin, to cross into Italy. According to the historian Agathias, the two brothers gathered a host of 75,000 Franks and Alamanni, and in early 553 crossed the Alps and took the town of Parma. They defeated a force under the Heruli commander Fulcaris, and soon many Goths from northern Italy joined their forces. In the meantime, Narses dispersed his troops to garrisons throughout central Italy, and himself wintered at Rome.   

Narses spent the winter in Rome, and in the spring (A.D. 554) his army, which had been dispersed among the forts and towns in the Ravennate region for the winter, was collected and reunited at Rome. We do not know his reasons for this retreat, which meant the abandonment of Etruria and the Hadriatic provinces to the enemy. He could rely with some confidence on his garrisons in the great fortresses, but the open country and unwalled towns were at the mercy of the invader.

The host of Buccelin and Leutharis moved southward, without haste, plundering and destroying. When they approached Rome they divided into two separate armies, of which the larger under Buccelin, avoiding Rome itself, marched through Campania, Lucania, and Bruttii to the Straits of Messina, while Leutharis led the other through Apulia and Calabria as far as Hydruntum. The provinces were systematically plundered, and an enormous booty was collected. In this work of pillage and devastation there was a marked difference between the conduct of the Franks and their Alamannic comrades. The Franks, who were orthodox Christians, showed respect for churches, but the heathen Alamanni were restrained by no scruples from carrying off the ecclesiastical plate and pulling down the roofs of the sacred buildings.

When he had reached the limits of Calabria, Leutharis laden with spoils decided to return home to enjoy them. He had no political ambitions, and his one thought was to get safely away with his wealth and run no further risks. He marched along the coast as far as Fanum, but there his troops suffered considerable losses through an attack by the Roman garrison of Pisaurum, and the greater part of the booty was lost. Leaving the coast he struck into the Apennines and reached the Po safe but dispirited. At the Venetian town of Ceneta, where he took up his quarters to rest, a virulent plague broke out in the army and Leutharis himself was one of its victims.

18,000 Romans vs 25,000 to 30,000 Franks.
General Narses deployed the Roman cavalry on each wing anchored by the forests and placed his infantry in the center, but it was not a solid center.  There was a gap where the Roman allied Herul troops should have been.  The army of the Franks consisted entirely of infantry.  They formed an infantry wedge and marched directly for the gap in the center of the Roman lines.   

The Battle

Buccelin returned to Campania and encamped on the banks of the Vulturnus close to Casilinum and Capua, which are only a few miles apart.  Casilinum is the modern Capua, and the ancient Capua is the modern village of S. Maria di Capua Vetere. On one side the river formed the wall of his camp, on the other side he fortified it securely. He had some hopes that he would soon be reinforced, for his brother had promised that when he had reached Venetia he would send back his troops. 
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As soon as Narses learned that Buccelin had occupied this position at Capua he marched from Rome with his army, numbering about 18,000, and encamped not far from the enemy. The battle which ensued was probably fought across the Appian Way which passed through Capua and crossed the river at Casilinum.

The course of the battle was affected by an accident. One of the Herul captains killed his servant for some delinquency, and when Narses called him to account asserted that masters had the power of life and death over their slaves and that he would do the same thing again. He was put to death by the command of Narses, to the great indignation of the Heruls, who withdrew from the camp and said they would not fight. Narses drew up his line of battle without them. He placed his cavalry on the two wings and all the infantry in the centre. 

Byzantine Armored Cavalry.
Trained to fire the bow on horseback, they could do enormous damage to an enemy from afar and then close in for the kill with lance and sword.

There was a wood on the left, and Valerian and Artabanes, who commanded on that side, were directed to keep a part of their forces concealed in the wood till the enemy attacked. Narses himself commanded on the right. The leader of the Heruls, Sindual, who was burning to fight, implored Narses to wait until he could persuade his followers to reserve a place for them, where they could fall in, if they arrived late. Accordingly he left an open space in the middle of the infantry.

Meanwhile two Heruls had deserted to the enemy, and persuaded Buccelin that his chance was to attack at once, as the Romans were in consternation at the defection of the Herul troops. Buccelin had drawn up his army, which consisted entirely of infantry, in the shape of a deep column, which should penetrate like a wedge through the hostile lines.  

6th Century Eastern Roman infantry.

In this array the Franks arrived, armed with missile lances, swords, and axes, confident that they would sweep all before them at the first rush. They penetrated into the central space which was to have been occupied by the Heruls, dislodging the outer ranks of the Roman infantry on either side. Narses quietly issued orders to his wings to face about, and the enemy were caught between the cross fire of the cavalry, who were all armed with bows. 

The Franks were now facing both ways. The archers on the right wing aimed at the backs of those who were fighting with the infantry on the left, the archers on the left wing at the backs of those who were engaged with the right. The barbarians did not understand what was happening. They saw the foemen just in front of them with whom they were fighting hand to hand, but they could not see the enemies who from far behind were raining arrows upon their backs. Their ranks were gradually mown down, and then Sindual and his Heruls appeared upon the scene. 

The defeat of the Franks was already certain; it was now to be annihilation. Buccelin was slain and only a handful escaped alive from the stricken field. The Roman losses were small. It will be noticed that Narses won this, his third victory, by a tactical plan similar to that which he had employed in the battle with Totila.


Perhaps 80 Romans were killed.  It was reported that only five Franks escaped.

With the Franks totally engaged in the center, Narses ordered his cavalry on the right and left flanks to close in.  The Franks were caught in a crossfire and their army annihilated.  

Aftermath


The Italians had been terror-stricken by the ruthless deeds of the northern barbarians, and they were wild with joy at the news of their utter destruction. Narses and thoughtful people had little hope that the brilliant victory of Capua head dispelled the danger. They reflected that the foes whose corpses were strewn on the banks or floated in the waters of the Vulturnus were such a small fraction of the Frank people and their dependents, that their fate would provoke rather than intimidate. They expected that a greater host would soon come down to avenge the fallen and restore German prestige. 

These fears were not realized, as they might well have been if Theodebert had been still alive; his feeble son Theodebald, who suffered from a congenital disease, died in the following year. Narses was able to complete in peace the settlement of Italy.

The winter months which followed the battle of Capua were spent in besieging Capsa, a strong place in the Apennines, where seven thousand Goths had established themselves under the leadership Ragnaris, the man who had behaved so treacherously at Tarentum. Campsa has been identified with Conza, about fifty miles east of Naples. Its position defied assault and Narses sat down to blockade it, but a large stock of provisions had been laid in. 

At the beginning of spring (A.D. 555), Ragnaris proposed to Narses that they should meet and discuss terms. Narses refused to agree to his proposals, and he retired in great wrath. When he was near the wall of the fort he turned round, drew his bow, and aimed an arrow at the general who was returning to his lines. It missed its mark, but one of the guardsmen who were with Narses had a surer aim, and transfixed the treacherous Goth. He fell dead, and the garrison surrendered immediately and were sent to Constantinople.

All Italy south of the Po was now restored to the Imperial authority. Of the subjugation of the Transpadane provinces, where Goths and Franks were still in possession, we have no record. It was a slow business, and Verona and Brixia were not recovered till A.D. 562. In November of that year Narses sent the keys of their gates to Justinian.

History of the Later Roman Empire by J. B. Bury (1923)

(Wikipedia)

6th century Frankish infantryman.

The Gothic Wars resulted in the Eastern Roman Empire re-conquering the areas of modern

Italy and Dalmatia.

The Second Battle of Marcellae

Medieval Bulgarian warriors. 
Khan Asparuh crosses the Danube in 680 AD. 

The Second Battle of Marcellae (792 AD)

• “The Bulgarians are a huge, mighty and warlike people that have subdued all their neighboring nations. One horseman of theirs can face 100 or 200 horsemen of the infidels. When they go to war they form lines – in front are the archers with their bows, and behind are the women and children…”
  Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Hussein ibn Ali al-Massoudi, 10th Century AD

The greatest enemies of the Eastern Roman Empire were the Arabs, the Turks and the Bulgarians.  This article deals with the early invasion and establishment of the Bulgarian Empire on Roman soil directly up against Constantinople itself. 
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The Romans and Bulgarians clashed at the Second Battle of Marcellae.   It took place in 792 at Markeli, near the modern town of Karnobat in south eastern Bulgaria. It is not to be confused with the earlier battle at the same place.
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In the last quarter of the 8th century Bulgaria overcame the internal political crisis after the end of the rule of the Dulo. The khans Telerig and Kardam managed to consolidate the central authority and put an end of the quarrels among the nobility.

Roman Emperor Constantine VI (right of the cross) presiding over
the Second Council of Nicaea. 

The Bulgarians finally had the opportunity to intensify their campaigns in Macedonia and annex the region and its Slavic population to their state. In 789 they penetrated deep into the valley of the Struma river and heavily defeated the Byzantines, killing the strategos of Thrace Filites. 
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In order to distract the Bulgarian attention from Macedonia, the Byzantine emperor Constantine VI started a campaign in northern Thrace in April 791. The armies met near the fortress of Provat (20 km east of Odrin) and the Byzantines were forced to retreat but their defeat was not decisive and in the following year the campaign was renewed.
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Forces Involved


It is maddening for a historian to try and deal with so many of the Byzantine wars because there is so very little information on events that were often of major importance.  In the Battle of Marcellae there is next to no information.  So one must speculate. 
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ROMANS   -   At the head of his troops, the Emperor himself was marching directly into enemy held and fortified territory.  It is fair to say that all available troops would be with the Emperor and this would be considered a major campaign.
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Historians speculate that the Roman army would have numbered in the 80,000 to 90,000 range at this point.  Most of the forces would be stationed along the frontiers facing the Arabs or Persia.  Other troops would be in Greece, Italy, the Crimea and Balkan frontier posts.  The Emperor might head an invading army of perhaps 15,000 to 20,000 men.  That number was often considered a standard size for major operations.
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The Roman force would have been a combination of infantry and cavalry units near Constantinople.  The full-time units were the tagmata.  They were the professional standing army of the Empire.

Eastern Roman Infantry

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The tagmata were exclusively heavy cavalry units and formed the core of the imperial army on campaign, augmented by the provincial levies of thematic troops who were more concerned with local defense.


BULGARIANS   -   There is no way to know numbers, but it is very likely the Bulgarians would have fielded a force perhaps equal to the Romans.
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The army consisted of a Bulgar cavalry and a Slavic infantry. The core of the Bulgarian army was the heavy cavalry, which consisted of 12,000–30,000 heavily armed riders. At its height in the 9th and 10th centuries, it was one of the most formidable military forces in Europe and was feared by its enemies. There are several documented cases of Byzantine commanders abandoning an invasion because of a reluctance to confront the Bulgarian army on its home territory.
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The Bulgars were well versed in the use of stratagems. They often held a strong cavalry unit in reserve, which would attack the enemy at an opportune moment. They also sometimes concentrated their free horses behind their battle formation to avoid surprise attacks from the rear.They used ambushes and feigned retreats, during which they rode with their backs to the horse, firing clouds of arrows on the enemy. If the enemy pursued disorganized, they would turn back and fiercely attack them.
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The Bulgarian army was well armed according to the Avar model: the soldiers had asabre or a sword, a long spear and a bow with an arrow-quiver on the back. On the saddle they hung a round shield, a mace and a lasso, which the Bulgarians calledarkani. On their decorated belts the soldiers carried the most necessary objects such as flints and steel, a knife, a cup and a needle case. The heavy cavalry was supplied with metal armour and helmets. The horses were also armoured. Armour was of two types — chain-mail and plate armour. The commanders had belts with golden or silver buckles which corresponded to their rank and title.
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The infantry of the newly formed state was composed mainly of Slavs, who were generally lightly armed soldiers, although their chieftains usually had small cavalry retinues. The Slavic footmen were equipped with swords, spears, bows and wooden or leather shields. However, they were less disciplined and less effective than the Bulgar cavalry.


VIDEO  -  Troops of Eastern Roman Empire-681 AD.  This clip is from a Bulgarian Movie made in 1981.  No CG or special effects are used.  These are real people marching.  It helps bring alive what it must have been like to see a Byzantine army on the march.

The Battle
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In the summer of 792 Constantine VI led his army north and on 20 July was confronted by the Bulgarians under Khan Kardam near the border castle Marcelae. 
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The Khan had built ramparts blocking the roads to the Rish Pass and the capital Pliska.  Rather than seeking out the Roman army the Khan awaited an attack in his fortified positions.
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For several days the emperor did not dare to attack but by the end of July he was convinced by "false astrologists" (according to the Byzantine chronicler Theophanes the Confessor) that the stars boded victory.  He attacked the Bulgarians in their prepared positions.

Victorious Bulgar warrior with captive,
featured on an ewer from the
 Treasure of Nagyszentmiklos.

Before the beginning of the battle, while awaiting the Byzantine assault, the Bulgarian ruler secretly placed part of his cavalry behind the hills surrounding the battlefield.
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The Byzantines, naturally, attacked in battle formation, but the uneven terrain led to a certain degree to its disruption, which was immediately used by Khan Kardam and the Bulgarian forces counter-attacked the enemy.  The Bulgarian counterattack was a great success against the disorganized Romans.


The hidden Bulgarian cavalry went round the Byzantines and cut their way back to their fortified camp and the fortress of Marcellae.  The Bulgarians took the supplies, the treasury and the tent of the emperor. They chased Constantine VI to Constantinople killing a great number of soldiers. Many Byzantine commanders and officers perished in the battle.
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A weapon called arkani was used by the Bulgarians in this battle: the arkani consisted of a long pole with an attachment similar to a lasso at one end. It was an excellent weapon against cavalry as the rider could easily be pulled out of the saddle by a skilled warrior, armed with the arkani.

Khans of the Bulgarian Empire.

The Aftermath
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It was a total and humiliating defeat for the Romans.  Constantine VI was forced to conclude peace with Kardam and had to pay tribute. Four years later (in 796) the emperor stopped the paying leading to a new war in Thrace which ended without a decisive battle.  The hostilities between Bulgaria and Byzantium continued under Kardam's successor Krum.
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The victory had great political significance. The decades of crisis were finally overcome, the Byzantines were forced once again to pay tribute to the Khans. Bulgaria entered the 9th century consolidated, stronger and united which was an important factor for the string of victories scored by Krum against the Byzantines.
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(Wikipedia)

VIDEO  -  681 AD: The Glory of Khan (Bulgarian: 681 г.: Величието на хана) is an 1981 three-part Bulgarian historical action and drama film telling the story of khan Asparuh and the events around the founding of the medieval Bulgarian state in 681 AD. It was shot and released on the occasion of the 13-century anniversary of Bulgaria.

The fortress of Markeli's Well Tower on the banks of the Mochuritsa.
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Markeli acquired its strategic importance in the late 7th century, when the establishment of the First Bulgarian Empire and its expansion turned it into a vital frontier stronghold just south of the Balkan Mountains. It would often change hands between Bulgarians and Byzantines, who would use it as a favourable starting point for military campaigns southwards and northwards respectively.

Markeli first came under Bulgarian rule in 705, when it, together with the whole region of Zagore, was ceded to Bulgaria by Justinian II.

Ruins of the basilica within the castle.
.Archaeological research of the fortress has been conducted since 1986. It has revealed that the castle was built in Late Antiquity (the early Byzantine period).  


The fortifications were constructed out of crushed stones with integrated rows of bricks and are thought to date to the reign of either Anastasius I (491–518) or Justinian I (527–565), i.e. the late 5th to mid-6th century. The ramparts were up to 10 metres (33 ft) high and had over 3-metre (9.8 ft) ditches before them.   he entire fortress, including the embankments dating to the early 9th century, had an area of 173 acres (0.70 km²).

The ruins of a Christian church (basilica) that have been unearthed in the eastern part of the castle are equally old as the fortifications. A well tower was positioned in the vicinity of the river in order to control access to the fortress and provide water for the defenders. An ancient bridge crossed the river near the tower, and an underground passage served as another way for the inhabitants to enter or leave Markeli.  

Overview of the castle ruins.
.In 792, Markeli was once more in the centre of a major Byzantine–Bulgarian conflict.  The second battle of Marcellae came during a long period of aggression between Byzantium and Bulgaria, with Bulgarian ruler Kardam and Byzantine Emperor Constantine VI each invading foreign territory in the past few years. Due to strategic errors, the Byzantines suffered a heavy blow in this battle.   

The Bulgarians and Romans at 800 AD.
The invasion of the Bulgarian people into the Eastern Roman Empire was one of
the greatest military challenges faced by any nation.  The Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars
lasted for nearly 800 years.